Risk Management Techniques And Systemic Risk Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1936 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? In my opinion, existing risk management techniques are not fit for purpose when examined in the context of overall financial stability. This is because current regulation and risk management techniques focus on protecting individual institutions rather than protecting the economy as a whole. As a result, there is no framework to alleviate systemic risk which has led to financial crises such as the most recent crisis in 2007. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Risk Management Techniques And Systemic Risk Finance Essay" essay for you Create order Section 1 will begin by defining systemic risk which is a central theme in this discussion. It will then give a brief insight into how the banking system has evolved from the traditional model to the shadow banking system which allows the use of securitization to protect individual institutions from credit risk. Finally, it will identify the negative macro consequences of the shadow banking system. Section 2 will examine the Basel Accords (I and II) to give an insight into past and current regulation of financial markets. Although the Basel Accords originally intended to regulate the macro economy, this section will show that unfortunately this has not been the case. The current focus of financial market regulation centres incorrectly on the micro economy. Section 3 will recommend new regulations for the future with a significant focus on macro-prudential regulation and the implementation of Basel III to ensure financial stability in the future. Section 1 (a) Systemic Risk Systemic risk is a central concept to this discussion however it is an ambiguous term with no clear defintion. My understanding of systemic risk combines three frequently used concepts as outlined by Kaufman Scott in 2003: When a large unexpected shock occurs, it has negative consequences for the entire banking, financial or economic system, rather than just affecting a few institutions. This definition distinguishes between the entire system as one entity (macro) and individual institutions (micro). Risk management techniques should consider both the macro and micro consequences of an event. However, up to the present day risk management techniques have concentrated on micro events. (b) Evolution from Traditional to Shadow Banking System In the traditional banking model, banks were obliged to hold loans (and associated risks) until they were repaid. (Brunnermeier, 2009) If the bank issued a twenty year mortgage, it was obliged to hold this mortgag e and its risk of default for the full twenty year term. However, the banking system underwent a transformation that led to loans being pooled, tranched and resold through securitization. This shadow banking system got its name from the fact that it sold short-term asset backed investments that were not recorded on the balance sheet. (Brunnermeier, 2009) Rather than a bank holding a twenty year mortgage, it was pooled with other loans, rated according to its risk level and sold to an investor who was willing to take on that level of risk. The aim of this technique was to identify risk accurately and divide the various levels of risk between parties who could easily bear them. (Caprio, Demirgà ¼Ãƒ §-Kunt and Kane, 2008) However, this was a micro-focused technique allowing individual banks to protect themselves from risk by offloading it to investors. Unfortunately, this technique also had negative macro effects. (c) Macro Effect of Shadow Banking System Securitization ha s had significant effects on the economy as a whole as it led to a decrease in overall credit quality and increased access to home ownership. There was no incentive for a bank to monitor the quality of loans it created when it didnt have to bear the consequences of default on a bad loan. Instead, there was an incentive to issue poor quality loans because this risk was passed on and the individual bank was protected. This is why mortgages were approved for individuals who were previously viewed as less creditworthy under the traditional banking model when banks were not able to offload risk. Therefore, securitization through the shadow banking system increased access to home ownership. (Caprio, Demirgà ¼Ãƒ §-Kunt and Kane, 2008) These mortgages were granted under the false pretence that house prices would only increase so there was no need to undertake background checks. It was believed that if a mortgage holder couldnt afford to make repayments, they would always have the opt ion of using the increased value of the property to refinance the loan incurring no loss. (Brunnermeier, 2009) Ultimately, this was not the case and mortgages were approved to people who now cannot afford to repay them. This was due to the shock of the recession causing the property bubble to burst and house prices to fall significantly. Therefore the macro effects of the shadow banking system are that overall credit quality has fallen and home ownership has been extended to people who cannot afford it. Section 2 Basel I Basel I was implemented in 1988 to regulate capital requirements in banks. It aimed to ensure banks had enough capital to cope with unexpected losses in order to protect the global financial system. (Council of Mortgage Lenders, 2010) Evidently, the aim of Basel I was macro-prudential regulation. However, it regulated in a way that continued to provide incentives for banks to act recklessly in order to protect themselves. Banks were required to hold total capital of 8% of risky assets, with 4% of this held as Tier 1 Capital i.e. shareholders funds and preference shares. (Caprio, Demirgà ¼Ãƒ §-Kunt and Kane, 2008) Basel I further encouraged securitization because securities backed by mortgages were considered less risky (20%) than holding mortgages themselves (50%). Therefore Basel I failed to protect the global financial system due to its micro focus. In section one I have already identified the significant negative consequences of securitization for the macro econom y. (Caprio, Demirgà ¼Ãƒ §-Kunt and Kane, 2008) Basel II Basel II was implemented in 2008 to promote stronger risk management practices and address the weakness that Basel I was too simple. Basel II consists of 3 pillars relating to minimum capital requirements, supervisory review of banks capital adequacy and strengthened market discipline of capital adequacy. Borio (2008) claims that Basel II is a much better method of regulation than Basel I. Pillar One ensures that capital is much more sensitive to the relative riskiness of exposures. It measures risk according to external credit ratings assigned to the borrower rather than having a fixed risk weighting as seen under Basel I. Where a residential mortgage was weighted as having a 50% credit rating under Basel I, this may be higher or lower depending on the risk associated with the particular borrower under Basel II. This seems more appropriate as mortgages do not carry a single risk level. In this manner, Pillar 1 red uces opportunities for regulatory arbitrage. In the most recent 2007 crisis, investors trusted credit rating organisations to assess risk on their behalf until it was too late and it became apparent that these ratings could not be trusted. They did so because they only had to hold the risk for a few months until it was passed on to the next investor in the securitization chain. It was easy for them to trust that credit ratings were correct because if they werent, it was unlikely that they would personally suffer a loss. Basel II promoted holding assets with good credit ratings while underestimating the fragile position of banks portfolios. In the U.S. many highly rated securities have since defaulted and been downgraded proving that they should not have been rated so highly in the first place. (Caprio, Demirgà ¼Ãƒ §-Kunt and Kane, 2008) Pillar 2 gives national regulators discretion to require additional capital to the minimum in order to compensate for additional risks tha t are not captured under Pillar 1. (e.g. interest rate risk) which may apply to individual institutions. This is a significant development from Basel I. It recognises that individual banks are faced with different risk factors. By allowing individual institutions to protect against individual risk, this should protect the financial system as a whole. Pillar 3 aims to improve market discipline and risk disclosures by requiring financial institutions to provide details of their risk management and risk distributions through the publication of financial statements. Unfortunately, Basel II does not include any measures to prevent financial institutions from becoming insolvent. It also doesnt impose any requirements on regulators to step in and implement corrective action if this does occur. This implies that under current regulation, banks may not be able to cope with shocks to the system which may lead to negative consequences for the macro economy. Section 3 Basel III Objective In September 2009 the Basel Committee agreed the basic framework for a new agreement, Basel III. This agreement aims to implement both micro and macro regulation to improve the ability of banks to absorb shocks arising from both economic and financial stress (it also includes the aims of previous Basel agreements to improve risk management and transparency). In essence, the Basel committee is attempting to alleviate systemic risk from financial markets in the future. Basel III should be fully implemented by 2018. (Bank for International Settlements, 2010) Basel III Techniques In 2008, Caprio, Demirgà ¼Ãƒ §-Kunt and Kane recommended that a simple leverage requirement is worked into Pillar 2. They believed that the current emphasis on weighting risk is a mistake and that this technique should be abandoned. In its place, they recommended that all items, both on and off the balance sheet should be included in a ratio that determines maximum leverage. This would include securitized assets and would eliminate arbitrage opportunities to acquire securitized products in order to minimise capital requirements as was the case under Basel I. The Basel Committee have announced that Basel III will supplement risk based capital requirements with a non-risk-based leverage ratio. This will reduce the emphasis on risk weighting. These combination of these two methods will result in a stronger treatment of non balance sheet items. (Bank for International Settlements, 2010) Basel III recognises that not all financial institutions pose systemic risks. Persaud (2009) advises that systemically important banks should receive closer scrutiny and have a greater requirement to contain their behaviour. Basel III has acknowledged this need for systemically important institutions to have a loss absorbing capacity beyond the minimum standards. This improves upon Basel II which did not include any method to reduce the risk of insolvency to institutions. R equiring systemically important banks to hold more capital will reduce their risk of insolvency. In short, Basel III has proven that we do not need more regulation, we need better regulation. This latest agreement addresses the need for an increased focus on macro prudential regulation. By regulating individual institutions in this manner with a view to protecting the overall macro economy, systemic risk can be alleviated. Conclusion Although Basel I and II aimed to protect the global financial system, they regulated in a way that provided opportunities for individual banks to gain through the shadow banking system that encouraged securitization. Ultimately, they encouraged micro risk management techniques that had negative implications for the overall economy. However, Basel III has moved away from this approach by introducing a non-risk based leverage ratio that will regulate in a way that monitors all assets both on and off the balance sheet. This means that banks will not be able to gain via securitization in the future. This, together with recognising that some financial institutions are of greater systemic importance and must be monitored more closely will lead to better regulation focused on the macro economy in future years. To conclude, I agree with Persaud (and it seems the Basel Committee also) that micro-prudential regulation is not adequate by itself and must be complemented by macro-prudenti al regulation that catches the systemic consequences of all institutions acting in a similar manner. We cannot prevent crises but we can reduce the number of them and their impact by implementing better regulation with a greater focus on macro-prudential regulation. (Persaud, 2009)

Harley Davidson Target Market Free Essay Example, 3000 words

In marketing, positioning has come to mean the process by which an attempt is made to create an image or identity in the minds of their target market for its brand and range of products, or the organization itself. The aim is to develop a perception in the mind of the target market about the brand and image. It has been stated by Hamel and Prahalad (1996) that companies that desist from competing for future market opportunities are doomed and forgo corporate value creation that they had achieved in the past. Growth is dependant on momentum and it is an integral part of business strategy. Growth is also a very difficult decision as it involves investments, and investment may become wasteful or a burden if there is no adequate return in a reasonable period of time. Corporate strategies have been divided into Five Ps by Mintzberg (1992) and they are Plan, Ploy, Position, Pattern, and Perspective. While each is a separate type of strategy with its attendant qualifications, yet they are usually present in all strategies to some degree. We will write a custom essay sample on Harley Davidson Target Market or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now The real difference lies in the fact that one of them will be dominant and others will play a supportive role. Among the strategies, Positioning is a long term objective of corporate operations and requires more attention to detail and a firm commitment to accept the consequences and to overcome roadblocks. It is an assertive policy that will require substantial investments and total cooperation of all stakeholders otherwise it might fail. The stakes are huge and the results are very rewarding. The one big risk is that in case the objective is changed due to the influence of external factors, the whole strategy will have to be abandoned at great cost. Therefore it has to be planned and well thought out over a period of time. It is preferable to first test this strategy for a short period on a smaller scale to confirm its feasibility and acceptance before making a full-fledged commitment. When a company embarks on a positioning strategy, it is beset with several roadblocks en-route. It is able to surmount them but within these attempts, it sometimes prolongs the effort and at times is able to quickly realize its goals.

Analysis Of Chekhov s Miss Julie - 1215 Words

Naturalism in theatre displayed the concept of creating ‘real life’ on stage. Notable practitioners such as Emile Zola, Anton Chekhov, and August Strindberg, illustrate in their plays this illusion of reality on stage. Director and practitioner, Konstantin Stanislavski, created a method where actors achieved naturalistic performances. Moreover, the key features seen in Naturalism theatre is the determinism of the environment, the actors portrayal of the characters and the concept of happiness. Both of this concepts can be seen in Anton Chekhov’s Three Sisters and August Strindberg’s Miss Julie. Determinism in the environment is the idea that the characters are victims of their own circumstance. In Miss Julie, Julie is infatuated with Jean, this is displayed by her actions. To illustrate, Julie tells him to go dance with her, and later she asks him to take her to the lake. Ultimately, Jean takes advantage of Julie’s naivety and tells her to go away with him to open a hotel. However, Jean soon realizes that Julie does not have any fortune, which causes Jean to not go anywhere with Julie. â€Å"Julie: ‘I can’t do that, I own nothing myself†¦ Jean: ‘Things stay as they are’† (Strindberg 58). Miss Julie feeling ashamed and not wanting to ruin her father’s reputation chooses to commit suicide. Strindberg creates a cycle of who has the power between Julie and Jean. Julie is first seen commanding Jean and at the end of the play, Jean commanding Julie. â€Å"Julie: †¦Bark me an order andShow MoreRelatedAn Exploration Of Au gust Strindberg s Life Through Its Cruel And Powerful Struggles1536 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"I find the joy in life through its cruel and powerful struggles† (Strindberg 57): An Exploration of August Strindberg’s Personality through Hypnotism in Miss Julie In the preface of the â€Å"brutal... cynical... heartless drama† (Strindberg 57), Miss Julie, August Strindberg gives an in depth analysis of his play and himself. Fashioning his characters as â€Å"souls† (Strindberg 91), Strindberg permits mobility in personal development and reflects the complexity of the self. Through his drawing of the characters

Longitudinal Analysis of Leading Advertising †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Longitudinal Analysis of Leading Advertising. Answer: Introduction The report is based on the different methods of business communication that is used by the organizations in order to attract more customers towards the products and services provided by them. Advertisements are the best method of communication that can be used by the companies as to attract different customers towards them (Kim et al., 2014). The name of the company is Tower Insurance and it is located in New Zealand. The founder of Tower Insurance Company is founded in the year 1869 by Michael Stiassny. The organizational structure of Tower Insurance is shown as follows: The organizational structure that is followed in Tower Insurance Company is a top down approach that is followed by the company. The different products and services that are dealt in Tower Insurance Company, New Zealand are the different kinds of insurance related to different items including car are the products and services, Tower Insurance is dealing with in New Zealand (Nelson, Ham Ahn, 2017). The mission statement of the respective company is to be the first choice by properly delivering accessible and relevant insurance solutions to the customers (Khang et al., 2016). Regarding the first choice, Tower Insurance delivers the best offers in the competitive market based on the different advantages as well as benefits of the organization. Tower Insurance helps in ensuring that proper achievement helps in performing better in the competitive market as well. The mission is to be accessible in nature along with proper and competitive value of money. Lastly, the aim of the company is to offer as well as tailor combination of advice, service and protection (Greene, Tanner Wright, 2015). The vision of the Tower Insurance is to actively enhance and protect the lives of the people. The Tower Insurance Company plays a proactive as well as leading role in improving the lives of the people through providing insurance. The main aim of the respective company is to manage and mitigate different kinds of risk of institutions as well as individuals. The main vision of the company is to deeply care about the individuals who are the target customers of the respective company and create an impact on the quality of the lives of the different individuals (Park et al., 2015). Identification of the business communication method The business communication method that has been used by Tower Insurance is the Advertising technique as this will help the respective company in attracting customers around the world (Mueller, 2013). Advertising technique can help the company in gaining more response of the customers. The advertising technique will help Tower Insurance Company to expand in the entire competitive market along with increasing the entire sales of the company. This advertising technique will help the entire company in educating the different customers about the new product that has been introduced by the company regarding the insurances. Advertising technique is dynamic in nature and it makes the consumers familiarize about the diverse uses of the different kinds of insurances (Wang et al., 2016). There can be different issues in the advertising technique that can be faced by Tower Insurance Company in New Zealand as it adds to the costs of the different products related to the insurance (Harris et al., 2017). The advertising technique will confuse the buyers as this will misguide them with different kinds of behavior and this will make the customers upset when the same thing that has been displayed by the company is not the same in the company (Lou, 2016). The problem that is faced by Tower Insurance is the increase in the cost of the expenditure and this can impact the sale of the other goods in the company and it is confusing the buyers of the company as well (Avant, Kim Hayes, 2017). The goal of the advertising method used by Tower Insurance Company is to get proper attention and promoting proper and immediate attention on the advertisement of the company as this will help the customers to get a proper brief about the product. The goal of the advertisement is to understand proper building of the sales and the profit in the organization. The goal of the advertisement is to build proper awareness about the different brands of the insurance among the different customers. The goal of the advertisement is to create long term communication among the customers and this will increase the sales of the company as well. Usage of advertisement technique The advertising technique that is used by Tower Insurance Company are promotions, Bandwagon as well as Repetition as this will make the company gain more competitive advantage in the industry. Tower Insurance Company has to analyze the different techniques of advertising as this will be effective in nature to attract more customer base in the entire industry. Tower Insurance Company has to use the repetition technique as this is the most effective technique and this will help in attracting customers through television as it contains both sound and audio clips of the advertisements that are helping the respective company to attract the customers. Similarly, bandwagon technique is effective and efficient in nature as well as this will help Tower Insurance Company in convincing the target customers in the entire competitive market by providing valued ideas and convincing advertisements as this will helps in connecting the individuals through the services that are provided by them. The advertisement method is implemented by Tower Insurance Company with proper utilization of the advertising in making the public aware about the different services that are provided by the Tower Insurance Company in order to attract their attention towards their insurance services provided by them and not the other competitor companies in the competitive market. The advertising technique has to be properly applied by the company as this will help in developing proper strategy of marketing in the company as to attract the different customers. The implementation is successful in nature as the creativeness in the advertising technique will help them in making the customers aware of the different strategies implemented by them (Yoon Oh, 2016). It helped in bringing new products and services to the notice of the customers as well as providing proper advertising helps in marketing of the different services provided by the respective company. Advertising helps in gifting different ideas and this can help in making the advertisement more convenient in nature. This will help in increasing the volume of sales in the market as this will help Tower Insurance Company in generating huge revenues in the market as well. The advertising will help in increasing the morale of the employees in the company and it will help in developing proper trust among the public. Lastly, the advertisement technique will help in reducing the cost of product and services with proper merits of economies of scale as well as elimination of the middlemen. Demerits of the advertisement technique From the above diagram, it can be analyzed the percentage of the advertisements in the world has been increasing in the last few years and this has been in huge demand by the customers, however there are customers who do not prefer proper advertising technique as according to them, advertising is the technique that misleads them and this can affect the expectations of the customers they are having regarding the services provided by the company (Avant, 2014). The advertising rate has been in huge demand by the customers in the competitive market in the current years as this is the best technique that is used by the companies in order to attract the customers and help them in deciding from different options available to them. This is an artificial living in the competitive market as the advertisement technique encourages wasteful consumption as well as the advertisements that are used by the companies are misleading in nature as this can misguide the different customers in the competitive market. Advertisement is the wasteful technique and unethical resources as the advertising can offend the sentiments of the public in general and this can hamper the brand of the respective company. Lastly, the advertisement technique used by the companies is of higher prices as this will lead to increase in the cost of distribution in the company. Conclusion Therefore, it can be concluded that advertising is essential in the company as this will help in making proper decisions relating to the different advertisements of the goods and services in the organization. In Tower Insurance Company, proper advertising technique has been applied as this will make the company aware of different techniques that can attract customers in the competitive market and this can help them gain proper competitive advantage. Advertising technique has few disadvantages wherein it is one of the misleading techniques of attracting the customers as this will mislead the customers regarding the different services provided by the respective company. Lastly, it can be concluded that advertising is a positive technique in order to make proper efforts in attracting more customers in the competitive market. The company needs to be attractive and effective in nature as this will help in making proper use of the techniques in making the customers understand about the services that are provided by them is better in nature than the competitors in the competitive market. References Avant, J. A. (2014). In Trends in Advertising Research: A Longitudinal Analysis of Leading Advertising, Marketing, and Communication Journals, 1980 to 2010 by Kyongseok Kim, Jameson L. Hayes, J. Adam Avant, and Leonard N. Reid, published in Journal of Advertising, 43 (3), pp. 296316, doi: 10.1080/00913367.2013. 857620, the affiliation for J. Adam Avant and Leonard N. Reid was incorrect. The correct affiliation follows.Journal of Advertising,43(4), 417. Avant, J. A., Kim, K., Hayes, J. L. (2017). Thirty Years of Advertising Research in Leading Communication and Marketing Journals: Learning From the Parent Disciplines.Journal of Current Issues Research in Advertising,38(1), 44-64. Greene, S. G., Tanner, J. R., Wright, P. (2015). An Analysis of the Impact of the Motor Carrier Act of 1980 on the Use of Advertising by General Motor Freight Carriers. InProceedings of the 1986 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference(pp. 246-250). Springer, Cham. Harris, M. L., Musgrove, C. F., Ernstberger, K. W., Cox, K. C., Choi, P. (2017). Differential Effects of Marketing Messages in Online Advertising for an MBA Program.International Journal of Technology and Educational Marketing (IJTEM),7(1), 15-25. Khang, H., Han, S., Shin, S., Jung, A. R., Kim, M. J. (2016). A retrospective on the state of international advertising research in advertising, communication, and marketing journals: 19632014.International Journal of Advertising,35(3), 540-568. Kim, K., Hayes, J. L., Avant, J. A., Reid, L. N. (2014). Trends in advertising research: A longitudinal analysis of leading advertising, marketing, and communication journals, 1980 to 2010.Journal of advertising,43(3), 296-316. Lou, D. (2016). When firms increase advertising spending, their stock prices climb in tandem.LSE Business Review. Mueller, B. (2013). JMS 460: Principles of Advertising. Nelson, M. R., Ham, C. D., Ahn, R. (2017). Knowledge Flows Between Advertising and Other Disciplines: A Social Exchange Perspective.Journal of Advertising,46(2), 309-332. Park, J. H., Venger, O., Park, D. Y., Reid, L. N. (2015). Replication in Advertising Research, 19802012: A Longitudinal Analysis of Leading Advertising Journals.Journal of Current Issues Research in Advertising,36(2), 115-135. Wang, Y., Rodgers, S., Wang, Z., Thorson, E. (2016). A seventeen-year study of graduate student authorship in advertising journals.Journalism Mass Communication Educator,71(1), 69-83. Yoon, S., Oh, S. (2016). Introduction to the special issue on social and environmental issues in advertising.